The document presented the pillars of the Department of Defense (DoD) legal policy regarding what it then called a computer network attack (CNA) or information operations and nowadays, “cyberwarfare” and “cyber-attacks.” For instance, it provided that “any unauthorized intrusion into a nation's computer systems would justify that nation at least in taking self-help actions to expel the intruder and to secure the system against reentry. Counsel, An Assessment of International Legal Issues in Information Operations 19 (2d ed. The approach taken in the 2017 Memorandum stands in tension with the traditional approach of the United States to cyberattacks as potentially constituting a violation of sovereignty. 19, 2017), discussed in Watts, Sean & Richard, Theodore, Baseline Territorial Sovereignty and Cyberspace, 22 Lewis & Clark L. Counsel of the Dep't of Def., International Law Framework for Employing Cyber Capabilities in Military Operations (Jan.
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